The Concept of Word Formation

Word formation refers to the process of creating new words in a language. This dynamic process significantly expands vocabulary and keeps the language vibrant and adaptable to cultural, technological, and social changes.

Types of Word Formation

1.1 Affixation (Prefix and Suffix)

Affixation involves adding an affix (a prefix or suffix) to a base word (root) to create a new word.

• Prefix: Added to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning.

Examples: Un- (not): unhappy, unsafe, unclear, unseen, unknown

                   Re- (again): rewrite, replay, refill, redo, rebuild

• Suffix: Added to the end of a word to change its form or function (e.g., part of speech).

Examples: -ment (result/state): movement, improvement, management, argument, commitment

                  -ness (state or quality): kindness, boldness, softness, sickness, thickness

 

1.2 Compounding

Compounding creates new words by combining two or more independent words, often with meanings that differ from the individual components. Compounding is of three basic types-

·         Open Compounds: high school, living room, full moon, dining table, coffee mug

·         Closed Compounds: toothpaste, sunflower, keyboard, basketball, notebook

·         Hyphenated Compounds: mother-in-law, twenty-one, editor-in-chief, self-esteem, check-in

Why Some Words Are Open, Closed, or Hyphenated Compounds

The choice between open, closed, or hyphenated forms for compound words is determined by factors such as language evolution, usage patterns, grammar roles, clarity, regional variations, and reader familiarity. Below is a comprehensive explanation with examples to illustrate each factor:

a. Language Evolution and Historical Usage

Words often start as open compounds and evolve into hyphenated or closed forms as they become more commonly used and recognized as single concepts.

Why This Happens- As speakers and writers frequently encounter a term, it becomes more natural to treat the word as a single entity rather than two or more separate elements.

Examples:

“E-mail” (hyphenated) → “Email” (closed)

“Web site” (open) → “Website” (closed)

“Note book” (open) → “Notebook” (closed)

b. Clarity and Readability

Hyphens are used to avoid ambiguity or ensure that the reader understands the intended meaning. Without hyphenation, certain phrases may be unclear.

• Ambiguity Example:

“Small-business owner” (owner of a small business)

“Small business owner” (business owner who is small in stature)

• Complex Modifier Example:

“Well-known actor” (actor who is well known)

Without the hyphen, “The actor is well known” conveys a different structure.

c. Grammatical Function and Context

The role of a compound in a sentence influences its form:

• Noun Compounds:
  These are often closed or open. As nouns, compounds tend to solidify into closed forms over time.

Closed Compound Examples: “Toothbrush,” “Handbag,” “Notebook”

Open Compound Examples: “Living room,” “Post office,” “High school”

• Adjective Compounds:
  Hyphens are frequently used when compounds act as adjectives before a noun to ensure clarity.

Hyphenated Examples: “Part-time job," “State-of-the-art equipment,” “High-risk strategy”

Without hyphenation: “The job is part time,” “The equipment is state of the art.

d. Word Usage Frequency and Familiarity

Frequently used words tend to become closed compounds as they are increasingly treated as single entities.

• High-Frequency Closed Compounds are formed by combining two or more words without spaces or hyphens, resulting in a single, solid word. These compounds are considered "high-frequency" because they are widely used and recognized in everyday language.

Examples- “Bedroom” (from “bed room”)

“Sunflower” (from “sun flower”)

“Notebook” (from “note book”)

• Low-Frequency Open Compounds: are compound words formed by combining two or more words that remain separate with spaces between them. Unlike high-frequency compounds, these combinations are less commonly used and may not be universally recognized as fixed expressions. Their meaning is often derived from the context rather than an established dictionary entry.

Examples- “Chief justice,” “Dining table,” “Living room”

e. Regional and Cultural Variations- Different varieties of English may prefer different compound forms, such as-

• American English: Often prefers closed forms earlier.

Example- “Notebook,” “Cellphone”

• British English: More likely to retain open or hyphenated forms for longer.

Example- “Note book” or “Cell phone”

• Hyphenation Preferences: British English tends to use hyphens more frequently.

Example- “Co-ordinate” (British) vs. “Coordinate” (American)

f. Stylistic and Contextual Factors

Authors, editors, and publishing houses may apply different conventions based on style guides like APA, MLA, or Chicago Manual of Style.

• Consistency in Style Guides:
  A publication may prefer “email” over “e-mail” for simplicity and modern usage.

To Summarise

• Open Compounds: Used when two words function together but are not yet recognized as a single entity.
• Closed Compounds: Result from frequent usage and language evolution.
• Hyphenated Compounds: Ensure clarity, prevent ambiguity, and improve readability.

 

1.3 Conversion (Zero Derivation)

Conversion, also known as zero derivation, is the process of changing a word’s grammatical category without altering its spelling or pronunciation. In other words, a noun can become a verb, or a verb can function as a noun, simply by changing its role in a sentence, without adding prefixes, suffixes, or other morphemes.

This process is common in English because of its flexibility in word usage and structure.

How Conversion Works-

Noun to Verb: A noun can be converted into a verb by implying an action associated with the object. In this category, the base word (a noun) starts representing an action or process.

For instance: “Email” (noun) becomes “to email” (verb), meaning to send an email message.

• Email → to email: Sending a message via email.

“I will email you the details.”

• Bottle → to bottle: Placing something into a bottle.

“They bottled the juice for distribution.”

• Chair → to chair a meeting: Presiding over or leading a meeting.

“Who will chair the meeting today?”

• Text → to text: Sending a written message via phone.

“She texted me the directions.”

• Access → to access: Gaining entry or obtaining something.

“You need a password to access the account.”

Verb to Noun: A verb can be converted into a noun by treating the action itself as a subject or object. Here, the action expressed by the verb becomes a subject or concept in itself.

For example: “Run” (verb) becomes “a run” (noun), referring to a session of running or a competitive event.

• Run → a run: An act of running or a competitive event.

“He went for a morning run.”

• Call → a call: An act of calling, often by phone.

“I received a call from my friend.”

• Guess → a guess: A conjecture or estimation.

“Take a guess at how old he is.”

• Drive → a drive: An act of driving or a journey in a vehicle.

“We went for a long drive along the coast.”

• Push → a push: An act of exerting force to move something.

“It took a strong push to open the heavy door.”

Adjective to Noun: An adjective is used as a noun to represent a person, concept, or collective idea associated with the quality described.

Example- Poor → the poor: Referring to people who are economically disadvantaged.

“We must help the poor in our community.”

Adjective to Verb: The process where an adjective is used as a verb to indicate transformation or causation of the described quality.

Example- Better → to better: To improve or surpass.

“She works hard to better her performance.”

Preposition to Verb: The conversion of a preposition into a verb, typically to describe an action related to the spatial or logical relationship conveyed by the preposition.

Example- Up → to up: To increase or raise.

“They upped the price by 10%.”

Importance of Conversion in Language

1. Flexibility: Allows speakers to express ideas more efficiently without the need to create new words.
2. Rich Vocabulary: Expands the functionality of existing words.
3. Economy of Language: Makes English adaptable by reducing reliance on affixes for word formation.
4. Creative Expression: Enables innovative usage, especially in technology and modern communication (e.g., “Google” as both a noun and verb).

Conversion is a powerful linguistic tool that illustrates English’s adaptability and efficiency. Its ability to shift the function of words without altering their form keeps the language dynamic and versatile, contributing to its global use and continuous evolution.

 

1.4 Clipping

Clipping is the process of creating a shortened version of a longer word without changing its meaning. The shortened form usually becomes more informal and is often used in casual speech. Clipping is distinct from abbreviations or acronyms because it retains only part of the original word, without introducing new letters or symbols.

Why Clipping Occurs:

1. Efficiency in Communication: Shortened words are quicker to speak and easier to remember.
2. Casual or Colloquial Language: Clipped forms often convey a more relaxed tone.
3. Language Evolution: Over time, frequently used words naturally become simplified.

Types of Clipping

1. Fore-Clipping (Beginning Removed)

In fore-clipping, the initial part of the word is removed, and the remaining part retains the original meaning.

• Aeroplane → plane: A flying vehicle.

“We’re taking a plane to Delhi.”

• Telephone → phone: A device used for voice communication.

“I’ll call you on my phone.”

• Influenza → flu: A contagious viral infection.

“Flu season is starting soon.”

• Helicopter → copter: A rotary-wing aircraft.

“The copter landed on the helipad.”

• Alligator → gator: A large reptile similar to a crocodile.

“Watch out for gators in the swamp!”

2. Back-Clipping (Ending Removed)

In back-clipping, the latter part of the word is removed, keeping the initial segment intact.

• Advertisement → ad: A public announcement or promotion.

“The company ran a new ad on social media.”

• Examination → exam: A formal test of knowledge.

“Our final exam is next week.”

• Demonstration → demo: A sample or display to illustrate something.

“The software demo was impressive.”

• Subscription → sub: A service agreement or membership.

“I renewed my sub to the magazine.”

• Gymnasium → gym: A facility for physical exercise.

“I’m heading to the gym after work.”

3. Middle Clipping (Both Ends Removed)

In middle clipping, the central part of a word is retained while the beginning and ending are removed.

• Refrigerator → fridge: An appliance for keeping food cold.

“Put the leftovers in the fridge.”

• Influenza → flu: A viral illness (both fore and middle clipping combined).

“The doctor said it’s just the flu.”

4. Complex Clipping (Removing Multiple Parts)

Sometimes words undergo clipping combined with compounding or blending processes.

• Situation comedy → sitcom: A genre of television or radio show.

“My favorite sitcom is back on TV.”

• Science fiction → sci-fi: A genre of speculative fiction.

“She loves reading sci-fi novels.”

Clipping in Modern Usage

Clipping is especially common in fast-paced environments like texting, online conversations, and marketing. Clipped words often lose their formal tone, making them suitable for casual speech but less appropriate for formal writing.

Examples in contemporary communication:

• Application → app: Used frequently for mobile applications.

“I downloaded a new app for fitness tracking.”

• Photograph → photo: Common in social media contexts.

“Post your vacation photos!”

Clipping reflects the dynamic nature of language, driven by the need for brevity and informality in communication. By understanding the types and uses of clipping, we can appreciate how language adapts to cultural and technological changes while remaining efficient and expressive.

 

1.5 Blending

Blending is a word-formation process where parts of two or more words are combined to create a new term, often representing a concept that blends the meanings of the original words. Typically, the beginning of one word and the ending of another are merged, although variations exist where other parts are fused.

Blends are widely used in everyday language, technology, science, and marketing, contributing to language evolution and creativity.

How Blending Works:

1. Initial Part of Word 1 + Final Part of Word 2:
   The most common blending pattern merges the beginning of one word with the end of another.

Example: Smoke + Fog → Smog (a combination of smoke and fog).

2. Whole Word + Part of Another:
   Sometimes, one entire word is combined with only a part of another.

Example: Medical + Care → Medicare (a healthcare service).

3. Overlapping Blends:
   In some cases, words are blended at the point where they share common letters or sounds.

Example: Motor + Hotel → Motel (common “o” sound blended).

Common Examples of Blending

1. Environmental Terms

Blending is common when describing environmental phenomena or issues:

• Smoke + Fog → Smog: A form of air pollution combining smoke and fog.

“The city’s skyline was hidden by thick smog.”

• Plastic + Pollution → Plasticsion: Refers to pollution caused by plastic materials.

“Efforts are underway to reduce plasticsion in the oceans.”

2. Food and Meal Names

Blended words often describe combined meal types or food products:

• Breakfast + Lunch → Brunch: A late morning meal combining breakfast and lunch.

“We went out for brunch on Sunday.”

• Snack + Dinner → Sninner: A small evening meal combining a snack and dinner.

“Let’s have a light sninner tonight.”

3. Technology and Digital Terms

Technological advancements often introduce blends:

• Binary + Digit → Bit: The smallest unit of data in computing.

“This computer processes data in 64-bit units.”

• Web + Seminar → Webinar: An online seminar or workshop.

“We attended a webinar on digital marketing.”

4. Travel and Hospitality Terms

The travel industry frequently uses blends:

• Motor + Hotel → Motel: A roadside hotel designed for motorists.

“We stayed at a small motel during our road trip.”

• Vacation + Apartment → Vacaytment: An apartment rented for a holiday stay.

“We booked a vacaytment near the beach.”

5. Healthcare and Services

Blended terms are also prevalent in healthcare:

• Medical + Care → Medicare: Government-provided healthcare for senior citizens in certain countries.

“Medicare benefits help cover medical expenses for retirees.”

• Emergency + Ambulance → Ambmergency: Rapid medical response vehicles for emergencies.

“The ambmergency service was dispatched immediately.”

Blending Variations

1. Compound Blends:
   Merging two existing compounds rather than simple words.

Example: Smoke + Haze → Smaze (smoky haze).

2. Abbreviated Blends:
   Reducing both words significantly during blending.

Example: Situation + Comedy → Sitcom (a comedic television show).

3. Scientific and Technical Blends:
   Common in specialized fields such as genetics or computing.

Example: Transistor + Resistor → Transistoristor (in circuit technology).

Impact of Blending on Language

1. Innovation: Blended words help describe new phenomena or inventions.
2. Efficiency: They provide concise alternatives to longer phrases.
3. Marketing Appeal: Catchy blended terms create memorable brand names (e.g., Infomercial – Information + Commercial).

Blending reflects the creative aspect of language and the need for new terms in an ever-evolving world. By merging familiar concepts into concise expressions, blends enrich communication while making language more engaging and efficient.

 

1.6 Acronyms and Initialisms

Acronyms: Words formed by combining the initial letters of a phrase or series of words and pronounced as a single word. These often-become part of everyday vocabulary due to their simplicity and ease of use.

Examples:

1. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration):
   “NASA is preparing for its next lunar mission.”
2. SCUBA (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus):
   “She completed her SCUBA diving certification last year.”
3. RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging):
   “The plane was detected by the radar system.”
4. PIN (Personal Identification Number):
   “Never share your PIN with anyone.”
5. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization):
   “UNESCO works to promote global education and cultural heritage.”

Initialisms: Words formed from the initial letters of phrases but pronounced letter by letter, rather than as a single word.

Examples:

1. FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation):
   “The FBI conducted a thorough investigation into the case.”
2. BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation):
   “The BBC provides extensive news coverage worldwide.”
3. ATM (Automated Teller Machine):
   “I withdrew cash from the ATM this morning.”
4. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
   “DNA testing was used to confirm the suspect’s identity.”
5. GDP (Gross Domestic Product):
   “The GDP growth rate is a key indicator of a country’s economic performance.”

Factors Influencing Use as Acronyms or Initialisms

• Pronunciation Feasibility:

Acronyms naturally form when the initials of a phrase can create a pronounceable word. Example: RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) sounds smooth and functions as a word.

Initialisms are preferred when the initials do not easily blend into a word. Example: ATM (Automated Teller Machine) is easier to recognize when spoken as “A-T-M” rather than as an acronym.

• Historical Usage and Convention:Some terms have traditionally been pronounced as either acronyms or initialisms based on how they were introduced to the public.

Example: FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation) has always been pronounced letter by letter.

Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) became an acronym to simplify repetitive usage.

• Word Length and Clarity:

Acronyms often develop in casual or conversational contexts for brevity.

Example: PIN (Personal Identification Number) is commonly used instead of saying the entire phrase.

Initialisms are favored in formal or technical contexts to ensure precision and clarity.

Example: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) retains its initialism format for scientific accuracy.

• Audience Familiarity:

Acronyms become popular in everyday speech when they are widely accepted and recognized by the general public.

Example: Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) quickly gained everyday usage as an acronym.

Initialisms are often used in professional or specialized fields where clarity takes precedence.

Example: MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) is more clearly understood when each letter is pronounced.

• Euphony (Pleasantness of Sound):

Acronyms tend to form when the resulting term is pleasant or easy to pronounce.

Example: UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund) is easier to say as an acronym.

Initialisms remain common when the letter combination is awkward or does not naturally form a smooth word.

Example: BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) does not lend itself to a simple acronym form.

Common Fields of Use

1. Technology: Acronyms like URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) are prevalent.
2. Medicine: Initialisms like MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and ECG (Electrocardiogram) are essential for healthcare communication.
3. Business and Economy: CEO (Chief Executive Officer) and ROI (Return on Investment) are frequently used terms in corporate environments.

Challenges in Using Acronyms and Initialisms

1. Ambiguity: Some terms have multiple meanings (e.g., PIN could refer to a personal identification number or a physical pin).
2. Overuse: Excessive reliance on acronyms can confuse readers unfamiliar with specific jargon.
3. Cultural Differences: Acronyms familiar in one language or region may not be recognized elsewhere.

Acronyms and initialisms play a vital role in simplifying communication, enhancing clarity, and promoting efficiency across various fields. While acronyms often blend into casual usage over time, initialisms remain more formal, highlighting the diversity and adaptability of language. Understanding their appropriate formation and use ensures effective communication.

 

1.7 Back-Formation

Back-formation is the process of creating a new word by removing what is mistakenly perceived as an affix (such as a suffix or prefix) from an existing word, even if the affix was not originally present. This often results in a change of grammatical category, typically transforming a noun into a verb. Back-formation simplifies the structure of a word to create a more concise and functional form.

Characteristics of Back-Formation

1. Perceived Affix Removal: A part of the word is interpreted as an affix (such as -or, -tion, -ing) and is removed to form the back-formed word.
2. Change in Word Class: Most back-formed words involve shifting from nouns to verbs (e.g., editor to edit) or adjectives to verbs.
3. Simplification of Language: Back-formation creates simpler, often more direct terms for communication and aligns with natural language evolution.

Examples:

1. Noun to Verb Transformations:

Original Word  (Noun)           Back-Formation (Verb)

             Editor                                         Edit

          Babysitter                                   Babysit

           Donation                                    Donate

          Television                                   Televise

         Resurrection                                Resurrect

 

Usage in Sentences:

• Editor → Edit:
  “He will edit the manuscript before submission.”
• Babysitter → Babysit:
  “I often babysit for my neighbors on weekends.”
• Donation → Donate:
  “Many people donate to charities during the holiday season.”
• Television → Televise:
  “The sports channel will televise the match live.”
• Resurrection → Resurrect:
  “The director plans to resurrect the old franchise.”

Other Back-Formation Examples

• Supervisor → Supervise
• Conversation → Converse
• Action → Act
• Observation → Observe
• Operation → Operate

Common Fields for Back-Formation Use

1. Media and Communication: Words like televise (from television) became necessary as technology advanced.
2. Commerce and Finance: Terms like automate (from automation) streamline expressions in business contexts.
3. Everyday Language: Informal speech often adopts back-formed words to make communication simpler and quicker.

Why Back-Formation Occurs

1. Language Economy: Speakers naturally prefer shorter, simpler terms when possible, leading to linguistic adaptation.
2. Mistaken Perceptions: The suffixes of complex nouns often seem like removable affixes, prompting the creation of simpler forms.
3. Cultural and Technological Evolution: As society evolves, the need for new verbs or concise terms drives back-formation (e.g., email to emailing).

Challenges and Controversies

1. Purists’ Criticism:

Some linguists and language purists resist back-formed words, often perceiving them as informal, incorrect, or unnecessarily casual additions to formal language. These critics believe such words deviate from traditional language structures and may dilute linguistic purity.

Examples:

• Burgle (from burglar): While widely accepted in British English, “burgle” sounds awkward or overly casual to some speakers, who prefer “rob” or “break in.”

Purists argue that “burglar” should not imply a need for a corresponding verb.

• Incentivize (from incentive): Many argue that “encourage” or “motivate” is a better choice than this back-formed verb.

Critics view “incentivize” as jargon-heavy and clunky.

• Conversate (from conversation): Though often used colloquially, this back-formed word is widely regarded as nonstandard or incorrect in formal contexts.

“Converse” remains the preferred verb in standard usage.

2. Potential Confusion:

Back-formation can sometimes lead to ambiguity or misunderstanding, especially when the newly created form lacks clear meaning or context, or when multiple interpretations are possible.

Examples:

• Resurrect (from resurrection):

In religious or historical contexts, “resurrect” may carry deep symbolic meaning, but its casual use in everyday language (e.g., “resurrect an old project”) can confuse or diminish its original weight.

• Edit (from editor):

Without context, “edit” may be ambiguous, referring either to making content changes (text or video) or to overseeing the entire editorial process.

• Automate (from automation):

The term can create confusion when overused in contexts that imply manual human intervention alongside automation. For example, saying “automate customer service” may still require human support, leading to mixed interpretations.

Back-formation is a natural and essential linguistic process that simplifies complex expressions and adapts language to societal and technological changes. Understanding how back-formation shapes communication highlights the dynamic nature of language and its continuous evolution.

 

1.8 Reduplication

Reduplication is a linguistic process where part or all of a word is repeated to create a new word or convey specific meanings such as emphasis, repetition, imitation of sounds, or playful expression. It is common in informal speech, poetic language, and children’s language development. Reduplication may also serve grammatical purposes in certain languages.

Types of Reduplication:

1. Complete Reduplication: The entire word is repeated.

Example: Bye-bye (farewell), Go-go (energetic or bustling activity).

2. Partial Reduplication: Only a part of the word is repeated.

Example: Tick-tock (sound of a clock), Zig-zag (irregular movement).

3. Ablaut Reduplication: Vowel sounds change between the repeated parts.

Example: Chit-chat (light conversation), Ping-pong (table tennis).

A linguistic tendency places high-front vowels (like “i”) before low vowels (like “a”), creating a rhythm.

Examples of Reduplication:

1. Bye-bye: Informal farewell.
2. Chit-chat: Casual conversation or gossip.
3. Zig-zag: Irregular back-and-forth movement.
4. Tick-tock: Imitates the sound of a clock ticking.
5. Dum-dum: Used to describe simple-mindedness or imitate certain sounds.

 

1.9 Borrowing

Borrowing refers to adopting words from other languages into a language’s vocabulary due to cultural contact, colonization, trade, or the introduction of new technologies and ideas. These borrowed words often retain their original meanings but may undergo slight changes in spelling, pronunciation, or usage over time.

Types of Borrowing:

1. Direct Borrowing: Words are taken directly with minimal alteration.

Example: Pizza (Italian), Sushi (Japanese).

2. Adapted Borrowing: Words are modified to fit the phonological or morphological rules of the borrowing language.

Example: Bungalow (from Hindi “bangla”) has adapted to English pronunciation.

3. Calque (Loan Translation): Phrases are translated literally from the original language.

Examples:

1. Phrases or Expressions:

Skyscraper (from French gratte-ciel, literally “scrape sky”)

Loanword (from German Lehnwort)

Hot dog (from German Heißer Hund, initially meaning “hot sausage”)

2. Government and Politics:

Cold War (from German Kalter Krieg)

Blue-collar (from French col bleu, referring to manual workers wearing blue uniforms)

3. Religious and Cultural Terms:

Holy Spirit (from Latin Spiritus Sanctus)

Bridegroom (from Old Norse brúðgumi)

4. Scientific and Technical Terms:

Cloud computing (modeled after equivalent terms in languages like Spanish: computación en la nube)

Black market (from German Schwarzmarkt)

5. Everyday Speech:

Adam’s apple (from French pomme d'Adam)

Wolf pack (from German Wolfsrudel)

Examples of Borrowed Words:

1. Pizza (Italian): A popular dish with a flatbread base topped with sauce and cheese.
2. Bungalow (Hindi): A single-story house.
3. Croissant (French): A crescent-shaped pastry.
4. Kindergarten (German): A school for young children.
5. Sushi (Japanese): A traditional Japanese dish made with vinegared rice and various toppings.

 

1.10 Coinage (Neologism)

Definition: Coinage is the creation of entirely new words or expressions, often to describe new products, technologies, concepts, or brand names. Coined words may initially start as specific terms for a product or service but can become generic terms as they gain widespread use.

Characteristics of Coinage:

1. Brand Naming: Many coined terms originate as trademarks or brand names.

Example: Xerox (initially a brand name for photocopiers).

2. Cultural or Technological Innovations: As society evolves, new words are needed to describe emerging phenomena or inventions.

Example: Google became synonymous with internet searches.

3. Blending and Compounding: Some neologisms are blends of existing words.

Example: Brunch (breakfast + lunch).

Examples of Coinage:

1. Google: Originally a brand name, now commonly used as a verb meaning “to search online.”
2. Kleenex: Initially a brand of tissue, now often used to refer to facial tissues generically.
3. Xerox: A brand name that has become synonymous with photocopying.
4. Teflon: A brand for a non-stick coating used in cookware.
5. Uber: Originally a ride-sharing service, now a verb used informally to describe using such services (e.g., “Let’s Uber to the venue.”).